Defect-free semiconductor templates for epitaxial growth and method of making same

ABSTRACT

A method for fabrication of defect-free epitaxial layers on top of a surface of a first defect-containing solid state material includes the steps of selective deposition of a second material, having a high temperature stability, on defect-free regions of the first solid state material, followed by subsequent evaporation of the regions in the vicinity of the defects, and subsequent overgrowth by a third material forming a defect-free layer.

REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No.09/851,730, filed May 9, 2001 now U.S. Pat. No. 6,653,166, entitled“SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE AND METHOD OF MAKING SAME”. The aforementionedapplication is hereby incorporated herein by reference.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

The invention pertains to the field of semiconductor devices. Moreparticularly, the invention pertains to fabricating defect-freeepitaxial layers for semiconductor device applications.

2. Description of the Related Art

Propagating defects, including threading dislocations, screwdislocations, stacking faults, and antiphase boundaries, play a negativerole in semiconductor devices, often limiting or even ruining theirperformance. Propagating defects can act as strong scattering centersfor carriers, thus reducing their mobility and limiting the performanceof many semiconductor devices. Some of these devices includeheterojunction bipolar transistors (HBT), field effect transistors(FET), and high electron mobility transistors (HEMT). Propagatingdefects can also act as centers of non-radiative recombination, thusruining performance of light-emitting devices like light emitting diodes(LED), optical amplifiers, and semiconductor diode lasers. During deviceoperation, particularly at elevated temperatures or at high power oflight, defects can propagate through the device structure and multiplythemselves, thus reducing the operating lifetime of the device.

Some reasons for the extended defects in a semiconductor heterostructureinclude, but are not limited to:

lattice mismatch between an epilayer and a substrate (for example in thecase of an epilayer having a thickness exceeding the critical thicknessagainst plastic relaxation);

precipitates of point defects and impurities (in the substrates);

statistical irregularities during crystal growth (in both the substrateand the epilayer);

dirt on the substrate surface (generating defects in the epilayer);

nucleation of surface defects (for example “oval defects” in molecularbeam epitaxy) due to local surface oxidation or statistical formation ofdroplets of source materials at the growth surface; and

difference in thermal expansion coefficients between the substrate andthe epilayer.

Several approaches have been proposed to reduce the density ofdislocations and other defects in epitaxial layers.

Liu et al. proposed the use of Sb as a surfactant during the growth ofSi_(0.5)Ge_(0.5) on Si by molecular beam epitaxy in order to reduce thedensity of threading dislocations (“A surfactant-mediated relaxed Si_(0.5) Ge _(0.5) graded layer with a very low threading dislocationdensity and smooth surface”, Applied Physics Letters, 75 (11), 1586-1588(1999)).

Takano et al. used low temperature growth of InGaAs layers onmisoriented GaAs substrates by metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy aimed toreduce the density of non-radiative recombination centers and improvethe photoluminescence properties of the layers (“Low temperature growthof InGaAs layers on misoriented GaAs substrates by metalorganic vaporphase epitaxy”, Applied Physics Letters, 80 (12), 2054-2056 (2002)).

Manfra et al. used a double-stage growth of a GaN buffer layer in thegrowth of AlN/GaAlN heterostructures on a sapphire substrate byplasma-assisted molecular beam epitaxy, attempting simultaneousoptimization of threading dislocation density and surface morphology(“Dislocation and morphology control during molecular-beam epitaxy ofAlGaN/GaN heterostructures directly on sapphire substrates”, AppliedPhysics Letters 81 (8), 1456-1458 (2002)). Nitrogen stabilizedconditions were used in the first step, which resulted in a roughened,three-dimensional growth morphology. This morphology appeared toincrease dislocation interaction and thus, reduced the number ofdislocations, which propagated to the surface. Metal stabilized growthconditions were applied in the second step, which resulted insmoothening of the growth surface.

Contreras et al. used Si delta-doping in the epitaxial growth of GaN ona Si (111) substrate by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition(“Dislocation annihilation by silicon delta-doping in GaN epitaxy onSi”, Applied Physics Letters 81 (25), 4712-4714 (2002)). This led tobending of screw dislocations and “pairing” with equivalent neighboringdislocations with opposite Burgers vectors. This resulted in theformation of square dislocation loops. However, edge dislocationsremained unaffected by silicon delta-doping.

Capewell et al. used the terrace grading profile to produce SiGe virtualsubstrates. (“Terrace grading of SiGe for high quality virtualsubstrates”, Applied Physics Letters 81 (25), 4775-4777 (2002)).

However, none of these approaches have been very cost-effective orsuccessful in reducing dislocations sufficiently to create a defect-freeepitaxial layer.

There is a need in the art for an improved method for selective etchingoff of defect-rich regions and application of this method to differentmaterials systems and different semiconductor devices.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

A method for fabrication of defect-free epitaxial layers on top of asurface of a first defect-containing solid state material includes thesteps of selective deposition of a second material, having a hightemperature stability, on defect-free regions of the first solid statematerial, followed by subsequent evaporation of the regions in thevicinity of the defects, and subsequent overgrowth by a third material,thus forming a defect-free layer.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows a flowchart of the method in the preferred embodiment ofthe invention.

FIG. 2(a) shows a schematic cross-section of a first solid-statematerial in a preferred embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 2(b) shows a schematic top view of the first material in FIG. 2(a)showing the exits of defects on the surface according to a preferredembodiment of the invention.

FIG. 2(c) shows FIG. 2(a) after the second material has been depositedin a preferred embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 2(d) shows FIG. 2(c) after an annealing step has been performed ina preferred embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 2(e) shows a schematic top view of FIG. 2(d).

FIG. 2(f) shows FIG. 2(d) after the overgrowth by a third material hasbeen performed in a preferred embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 3(a) shows a schematic cross-section of an epitaxial layer, or asubstrate, comprising defects according to another embodiment of theinvention.

FIG. 3(b) shows a schematic top view of the epitaxial layer in FIG.3(a), showing the exits of defects on the surface according to anotherembodiment of the invention.

FIG. 3(c) shows FIG. 3(a) after the second material has been deposited.

FIG. 3(d) shows FIG. 3(c) after an annealing step has been performed.

FIG. 3(e) shows a schematic top view of FIG. 3(d).

FIG. 3(f) shows FIG. 3(d) after the overgrowth by a third material hasbeen performed.

FIG. 4(a) shows a layer grown epitaxially on a substrate in analternative embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 4(b) shows FIG. 4(a), where subsurface defect-free regions of theepitaxial layer, on the one hand, and subsurface regions of theepitaxial layer in the vicinity of the defects, on the other hand,having different strain states, are marked differently.

FIG. 4(c) shows FIG. 4(a) after a second material has been deposited.

FIG. 4(d) shows FIG. 4(c) after an annealing step is performed.

FIG. 4(e) shows FIG. 4(d) after an overgrowth by a third material hasbeen performed.

FIG. 5(a) shows a layer grown epitaxially on a substrate, whereas thethickness of the epitaxial layer exceeds the critical thickness anddefects have been formed in the epitaxial layer, in an alternativeembodiment of the invention.

FIG. 5(b) shows FIG. 5(a), where subsurface defect-free regions of theepitaxial layer, on the one hand, and subsurface regions of theepitaxial layer in the vicinity of the defects, on the other hand,having different strain states, are marked differently.

FIG. 5(c) shows FIG. 5(a) after a second material has been deposited.

FIG. 5(d) shows FIG. 5(c) after an annealing step has been performed.

FIG. 5(e) shows FIG. 5(d) after an overgrowth by a third material hasbeen performed.

FIG. 6 shows a schematic view of a high electron mobility transistor(HEMT) in a preferred embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 7 shows a schematic view of a semiconductor vertical cavity surfaceemitting laser (VCSEL), in which the n-doped part of the cavity isformed using the method of the present invention.

FIG. 8 shows a schematic view of a semiconductor edge-emitting laser, inwhich the n-doped part of the waveguide is formed using a method of thepresent invention.

FIG. 9 shows a flowchart of a method of in-situ fabrication ofdislocation-free structures from plastically relaxed layers grown on asemiconductor surface suitable for epitaxial growth.

FIG. 10(a) shows a substrate, or an epitaxial layer grown on top of somesubstrate, with a surface suitable for further epitaxial growthaccording to the method shown in FIG. 9.

FIG. 10(b) shows FIG. 10(a) after beginning deposition of alattice-mismatched layer according to the method shown in FIG. 9.

FIG. 10(c) shows FIG. 10(b) after the strain has caused appearance ofdislocations and local defects, at some critical thickness, in thelattice-mismatched layer according to the method shown in FIG. 9.

FIG. 10(d) shows FIG. 10(c) after a cap layer has been deposited on topof the lattice-mismatched layer of the device in a preferred embodimentof the invention.

FIG. 10(e) shows FIG. 10(d) after a high temperature-annealing step hasbeen performed.

FIG. 10(f) shows FIG. 10(e) after further overgrowth of the defecteliminated layer regions by an additional layer of the material having asimilar lattice constant with the substrate.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The current invention overcomes the shortcomings of the prior art withan improved method for selective etching off of defect-rich regions andapplication of the method to different materials systems and differentsemiconductor devices.

One method to eliminate defects in epitaxial layers deposits atemperature stable material, which does not cover the regions in thevicinity of the defects. After thermal treatment, the regions near thedefects were evaporated. A mechanism for the selective repulsion of thecap material with respect to the defect regions is additionallydisclosed. This is elastic repulsion due to different lattice constantsin local plastically-relaxed regions in the vicinity of the dislocationin the epilayer and the cap layer, which has a lattice parameter inno-strain state close to that on the surface of the defect-free regionsof the epilayer.

Referring to FIGS. 9 and 10, the method of in-situ fabrication ofdislocation-free structures from plastically relaxed layers grown on asemiconductor surface suitable for epitaxial growth (disclosed in U.S.patent application Ser. No. 09/851,730) is based on essentially severaleffects. In step (900), a crystal surface based on material (1) suitablefor epitaxial growth is prepared, as it is shown in FIG. 10(a). Thecrystal surface of material (1) is preferably composed of GaAs, or otherIII-V, II-VI compound semiconductors or their alloys, or elemental groupIV semiconductors and their alloys, or oxides (e.g. Al₂O₃). The crystalsurface has a first lattice constant in no-strain case. No strain statecan be realized in bulk material or in freely suspended film and thelattice parameters of all the relevant materials in no-strain state areavailable in the prior art.

In step (910), a lattice mismatched layer (2), which has a secondlattice constant in no-strain case, is grown on top of the surfacematerial (1), resulting in the intermediate device shown in FIG. 10(b).The lattice-mismatched layer (2) is preferably composed of group III-V,or II-VI compound semiconductor or SiGe material, epitaxially grown ongenerally the whole area of the initial surface (1), wherein the latticeconstant of the lattice-mismatched layer (2) in no-strain state differsfrom a lattice constant of the initial surface (1). The growth initiallyproceeds pseudomorphically, and the lateral lattice parameter of thegrown film is equal to the lattice constant of the surface. At thisstage, significant strain energy accumulates in the lattice-mismatchedlayer (2) because the second lattice constant differs from the latticeconstant of the substrate material (1). At some critical thickness, thestrain energy results in partial plastic relaxation of thelattice-mismatched layer (2) via formation of dislocations (4), such asdislocation networks, local defects, and dislocated three-dimensionalclusters in step (920). These dislocations (3) are shown in FIG. 10(c).Deposition of the lattice-mismatched dislocated layer (2) continuesuntil it reaches a desired thickness in step (130). The dislocated layer(2) may have a corrugated surface, and/or represent a compositionallymodulated internal structure.

During steps (910) through (930), the lattice-mismatched layer (2) ispreferably formed by supplying source materials of group III and Velements, group II and VI elements, or group IV elements, constitutinggroup III-V compound semiconductor, or II-VI semiconductor, or group IVsemiconductor materials, to a reaction chamber. Then, a thin layer ofsemiconductor material is initially formed and each element is suppliedduring a defined time period. The total thickness of the dislocatedlayer (2) exceeds the critical thickness necessary for dislocation (3)formation. Some examples of growth techniques, which could be employed,are molecular beam epitaxy, metal-organic chemical vapor deposition, orrelated growth techniques. Steps (900) through (930) are optionallyrepeated, preferably from two times to twenty four times.

After the desired average thickness of the dislocated layer (2) isachieved, a cap layer (4) with a third lattice constant in no-straincase is deposited in step (940). The third lattice constant ispreferably close to the lattice constant of the initial surface, or, atleast, it should be closer to the initial surface (1) lattice constant,than to the dislocated layer (2) lattice constant in no-strain case, orthe lattice mismatch of the cap layer in no strain-state with theinitial surface has another sign as the lattice mismatch of thedislocated layer in no-strain case and the initial surface. Thetemperature during the growth of the cap layer (4) allows migration ofatoms of the material of the cap layer (4) towards theenergetically-favorable cites. As a result of these conditions, theareas of the dislocated layer (2) near the dislocations (3) areinitially not covered by the cap layer (4). The lattice constant inthese regions is close to that of the dislocated layer (3) in no-strainstate, and these regions are less energetically favorable for nucleationof the cap layer (4) having no, or small lattice mismatch with thesemiconductor surface in no-strain state, or the lattice mismatch of thecap layer (4) with the semiconductor surface in no-strain state is ofthe opposite sign. The total thickness of the layer is kept in such away that the driven of the cap material leaves the areas of thedislocated layer (2) near the dislocations (3) open. The thermalevaporation rate of the cap layer (4) is preferably lower than that ofthe dislocated layer (2). The thermal evaporation rate of the initialsurface (1) is preferably lower than that of the cap layer (4).

The substrate (1) temperature during epitaxial growth is generallysufficient for adatoms of semiconductor materials, which are present onthe surface in some concentrations at elevated temperatures, to diffuseto energetically favorable sites, resulting in redistribution of the caplayer (4) during or after epitaxial deposition. As the third latticeconstant is preferably close to that of the substrate (1), the cap layer(4) deposition preferably concentrates away from the regions of thedislocated layer (2) in the vicinity of dislocations (3) and/or localdefects, as the lattice constant in these regions is close to the secondlattice constant, and the cap layer (4) deposit is more strained whenformed in these regions. Thus, the regions of the dislocated layer (2)in the vicinity of dislocations (3) are preferably not covered. Apreferable distribution of the cap layer (4) is shown in FIG. 10(d).

The cap layer (4) is preferably composed of group III-V, or II-IVcompound semiconductor, or SiGe. However, the cap layer (4) preferablyhas a different composition ratio of constituent elements from thedislocated layer (2). The cap layer (4) preferably has a similar latticeconstant as the initial surface material (1) in the no-strain state.Alternatively, the lattice constants of the cap layer (4) in no-strainstate differs from a lattice constant of the initial surface (1), butthe difference between the lattice constant of the cap layer (4) inno-strain state and the lattice constant of the initial surface (1) issmaller than the difference between the lattice constant of thedislocated layer (2) in no-strain state and the lattice constant of theinitial surface. In a third embodiment, the lattice mismatch of the caplayer (4) with the initial surface (1) in no-strain state is preferablyof the opposite sign as the lattice mismatch of the dislocated layer (2)and the initial surface (1) in no-strain state.

After the cap layer (4) is deposited, the substrate temperature isincreased up to a temperature where the evaporation of the dislocatedlayer (2) becomes significant in step (950). The regions containingdislocations and local defects (3), which are not covered by the caplayer (4), are selectively etched-off. The regions of the dislocatedlayer (2) capped by the cap layer (4) remain on the surface. Theresulting structure, shown in FIG. 10(e), represents an array of regionsof the defect eliminated layer (2′) covered by the cap layer (4) andseparated by trenches (5), having a width defined by the etching timeand temperature.

The etching time is preferably chosen so that thermal etching results incomplete evaporation of defects. In one embodiment reduction of thelateral size of the regions of the dislocated layer (2) to approximately20-100 nm occurs.

In this case the top regions of the lattice-mismatched defect-eliminatedlayer may relax elastically via lateral extension into the trenches. Thestrain distribution becomes non-uniform along the height of the regionsof the defect-eliminated layer, and the regions near the initial surfaceaccumulate the highest strain energy. This etching scenario results inpreferential etching of the defect-eliminated layer (2′) near theinterface with the initial surface (1) due to the higher residual strainin this region, thus leading to a mushroom-type pedestals for furtherepitaxial growth. Alternatively, the etching temperature and time arechosen so that thermal etching of the regions of the defect-eliminatedlayer (2) results in evaporation of a significant part of this layer(2′).

In a third embodiment, the annealing step is performed at temperaturessufficient for dislocation (3) multiplication. The domains in thisembodiment are preferably 20-100 nm.

In an alternative embodiment, the dislocated layer (2) is depositedusing a composition of source materials under certain conditions andgrowth sequences to realize a region where the plastic relaxation occursvia local formation of defect dipoles, dislocated clusters, or otherlocal defects, affecting in their vicinity the in-plane latticeparameter of the semiconductor material formed in this step. In thisembodiment, step (940) and step (950) result in local holes in thedefect eliminated layer (2′).

In step (960), an additional layer (6) made of the material as theinitial surface is deposited on the device, so that it overgrows the caplayer (4). The resulting structure is shown in FIG. 10(f).Alternatively, the additional layer (6) is not identical to the initialsurface material (1), but has a lattice constant close to the latticeconstant of the initial surface material (1), and is grown or thedefect-free-regions are used as templates for further epitaxial growthof semiconductor material having an arbitrary lattice parameter. In bothsituations, the growth is accomplished according to the desired geometryof a practical device. The additional layer (6) is preferably composedof group III-V or II-VI compound semiconductor or SiGe, or multilayerstructure. Steps (910) through (960) are preferably repeated in step(970) two to forty times, depending on the device being fabricated. Inone embodiment, the layers are doped to provide free electron or holeconcentration in the defect eliminated layer (2′) preferably in the10¹⁷-10¹⁹ cm⁻³ range.

Steps (940)-(960) are optionally repeated preferably two to forty timesto provide optimal elimination of defects.

This method fabricates defect-free semiconductor structures by selectiveevaporation of defect-rich regions. One of the primary focuses of thismethod is the elimination of defects in the active regions ofsemiconductor diode lasers.

In one embodiment of the method, defect-free regions at the surfaceformed by the above-described treatment are used as templates forfurther epitaxial growth of semiconductor materials having an arbitrarylattice parameter, and the device is formed on top of the surface.

FIG. 1 shows a flowchart of a method of the present invention, whichgrows defect-free epitaxial layers on top of a material containingdefects. The method includes multiple steps. In step (100), a surfacesuitable for further epitaxial growth and containing defect regions, forexample a first solid state material, is prepared. In a preferredembodiment, the first solid state material is a substrate or a firstepitaxial layer. The first solid state material has a first thermalevaporation rate.

In step (110), a cap layer composed of a second material is deposited onthe surface of the first solid state material. The cap layer ispreferably thin. For example, in an embodiment of the present invention,where AlAs is used as a cap layer material, the thickness of the AlAscap layer is adjusted according to the deposition and annealingtemperature to have the regions near the defects open prior to theetching procedure. In the example of etching InGaAs at 700° C., the AlAscap thickness is to be kept preferably between 0.2 and 5 nm.

In another embodiment, the defect region can be covered by the cap layerat the initial stage of the etching and the open regions appear upon theevaporation and redistribution of the cap material during thehigh-temperature annealing phase. In this embodiment, the cap layer ispreferably thinner than 30 nm.

The second material preferably has a second thermal evaporation ratelower than the first evaporation rate. The cap layer preferably coversthe defect-free regions of the first solid state material and does notcover regions in the vicinity of at least some defects.

Step (120) is an annealing step performed under conditions where atleast some regions of the first solid state material in the vicinity ofthe defects, which have not been covered by the cap layer, evaporate atleast from some near-surface regions of the first solid state material.The defect-free regions covered by the cap layer persist.

Steps (110) and (120) are preferably repeated, if desired, in step(125). Each time these steps are repeated, the method preferablyaddresses a different type of defects. In a preferred embodiment, thenumber of repetitions ranges from two to forty.

A third material is deposited in step (130). The third material coverssurface regions of the cap layer and forms a defect-free epitaxial layersuitable for further epitaxial growth.

Steps (110) through (130) are preferably repeated in step (135) toincrease the effect of the defect reduction. In a preferred embodiment,the number of repetitions ranges from two to fifty.

The method of the present invention, which grows defect-free layers ontop of defect-containing layers, is illustrated in detail by particularembodiments in the following descriptions of the Figures.

FIG. 2 shows an example of an embodiment of the present invention. FIG.2(a) corresponds to step (100) and shows schematically a cross-sectionof the first solid state material (201), shown here as an epitaxiallayer. The epitaxial layer (201) has a first thermal evaporation rateand includes extended defects (202). The type of defects (202) in theepitaxial layer (201) include, but are not limited to, threadingdislocations, screw dislocations, stacking faults, antiphase domainboundaries, or any combination thereof. FIG. 2(b) shows a top view ofthe epitaxial layer (201) showing exits (205) of extended defects (202)on the surface.

Preferred materials of the epitaxial layer (201) include, but are notlimited to, semiconductors such as Si, GaAs, GaSb, InP, or GaN, orsemiconductor alloys such as Si_(1−x)Ge_(x), Ga_(1-x)In_(x)As, orGa_(1-x)In_(x)N. Preferred materials of the cap layer (203) include, butare not limited to semiconductors, such as Si, AlAs or AlN.

The most damaging types of defects in device applications are extendeddefects. These defects include, but are not limited to, threadingdislocations, screw dislocations, stacking faults, and antiphase domainboundaries (e.g., in the case of GaAs growth on Si). These defects areespecially damaging because they can propagate throughout the furtherepitaxial layers. Point defects like dislocation loops, defect dipoles,three-dimensional dislocated clusters, and precipitates of impurityatoms on the surface are also potentially damaging, as these defects cangive rise to other defects propagating in the epitaxial layers.

The surface regions of the epitaxial layer (201) in the vicinity of theexits of extended defects (202) and the surface regions remote from theexits of the extended defects preferably have different physicalcharacteristics. These two types of surface regions can differ instrain, in surface energies, in the intrinsic surface stress, in surfacemorphology, in wetting/non-wetting properties regarding the depositionof another material, or in any combination of these characteristics.

When the cap layer (203) is deposited on the surface containing defectsin step (110), it grows preferably at the energetically favorablesurface regions and does not grow at unfavorable surface regions. Thechange of the energy of the system per unit surface area may be writtenas follows:

ΔE=ƒ _(elast) h+ΔΓ,  (1)

where ƒ_(elast) is the elastic strain energy density, h is the cap layerthickness, and ΔΓ is the combination of surface and interface energies,

ΔΓ=γ_(cap)+γ_(int erface)−γ₁,  (2)

which determines the wetting (ΔΓ<0) or non-wetting (ΔΓ>0) conditions atthe deposition of the cap material. Here γ₁ is the surface energy of thesubstrate or the first epilayer, γ_(cap) is the surface energy of thecap layer, and γ_(int erface) is the interface energy. The elasticstrain energy density depends on the local strain. The same is valid forthe surface and interface energies, which are renormalized in the strainfield. Thus, e.g., the surface energy of the substrate or the firstepilayer γ₁ may be written as a function of the strain tensor ε_(ij) asfollows: $\begin{matrix}{{{\gamma_{1}( ɛ_{ij} )} = {\gamma_{1}^{(0)} + {\tau_{ij}ɛ_{ij}}}},} & (3)\end{matrix}$

where γ₁ ⁽⁰⁾ is the surface energy of an unstrained surface, and τ_(ij)is the intrinsic surface stress tensor. The combination of surface andinterface energies ΔΓ from Eq. (3) depends on the local strain as well.Depending on material parameters, the energetically preferred positionsfor the growth of the cap layer are dominated by any of the abovementioned differences between the two surface regions.

It should be noted that, for some combinations of materials, the capmaterial is attracted to the defect regions and preferably decoratesdefects. For other material combinations, the cap material is repelledfrom the defect regions. The latter material combinations are preferablyused in the method of the present invention.

FIG. 2(c) shows a cross-section of the epitaxial layer after the caplayer (203), composed of a second material, has been deposited. The caplayer (203) is deposited such that it covers defect-free regions of thesurface and does not cover regions in the vicinity of the defects. Thematerial of the cap layer is preferably selected such that it possessestwo properties. First, due to the above mentioned difference betweendefect-free surface regions and surface regions in the vicinity of thedefects, the cap layer material covers the surface regions remote fromthe defect regions and does not cover the defect regions. Second, thecap layer material has a second thermal evaporation rate lower than thefirst thermal evaporation rate.

Selective deposition can be realized on both planar and wavy surfaces.Additionally, defects themselves affect the surface morphology,resulting in a change of surface reconstruction and/or the onset ofsteps and/or the onset of tilted facets in the vicinity of the defects.If, due to the change in surface morphology, the regions in the vicinityof the defects are energetically unfavorable for the growth of the capmaterial, this allows for selective deposition.

FIG. 2(d) shows a cross-section of the epitaxial structure after thethermal annealing step (120). Evaporated regions of the first materialin the vicinity of the defects form troughs in the regions of the exitsof the defects. Defect-free surface regions covered with the cap layer(203) remain unaffected, whereas uncovered regions of the epitaxiallayer (201) in the vicinity of the defects (202) at least partiallyevaporate, forming troughs (204) in the vicinity of the defect exits(205). FIG. 2(e) shows troughs (204) surrounding exits of the defects(205) in a top view of FIG. 2(d).

FIG. 2(f) shows a cross-section of the structure after the overgrowth ofa third material forming an epitaxial layer (206) in step (130). Thetroughs (204) over the exits (205) of the defects (202) are overgrownfrom the sides, forming voids (207) in the epitaxial structure. Thethird material forms a defect-free epitaxial layer (206), suitable as atemplate for further epitaxial growth. The material of the layer (206)is selected such that the overgrowth starts from the regions covered bythe thin layer (203), further proceeds via the lateral epitaxialovergrowth such that regions of the layer (206) start to form on top ofthe thin layer (203), and then merge, forming a defect-free epitaxiallayer (203).

In a semiconductor device based on a defect-free epitaxial layer grownon top of a defect-containing layer, the main region is remote from theinterface between the layer (203) and the layer (206). Thus, inelectronic devices such as a high electron mobility transistor, thelayer in which a high mobility is realized is remote from the voids(207). In optoelectronic devices, such as semiconductor diode lasers,the active region is remote from the voids (207). Thus, the voids (207)do not directly affect the performance of the semiconductor devices. Oneof the advantages the voids (207) provide is that the voids (207) blockfurther propagation of extended defects (202) into the epitaxial layer(206) and further epitaxial layers.

The voids are formed preferably in cases when the etching of the defectregions is performed to a significant depth, preferably exceeding 10 nm,in such a way that vertically and laterally-extended voids are formed inthe defect-containing layer. This approach is preferable when thedislocations impose very significant strain, which may stimulate theirpropagation into the defect-free epilayer after the voids are filledwith defect-free material. In another embodiment the voids are formedintentionally to achieve the desired mechanical, electrical or opticalproperty. For example, a higher resistivity of a layer with voids can beachieved than in a layer without voids. In another example, the layerwith voids may provide high optical reflectivity and can be used forfabrication of distributed Bragg reflectors.

Preferred materials of the overgrowth layer (206) include, but are notlimited to, semiconductors such as Si, GaAs, GaSb, InP, or GaN, orsemiconductor alloys such as Si_(1-x)Ge_(x), Ga_(1-x)In_(x)As, orGa_(1-x)In_(x)N. In some embodiments, the material of the overgrowthlayer (206) is the same material as the epitaxial layer (201).

Some preferred material combinations include, but are not limited to,the following:

If the layer (201) is composed of the semiconductor alloySi_(1-x)Ge_(x), the preferred embodiment for the cap layer (203) is Si.In this embodiment, the defect-free layer (206) is preferably composedof Si_(1-x)Ge_(x), with the same composition “x” as the layer (201).

If the layer (201) is composed of the semiconductor alloyGa_(1-x)In_(x)As, the preferred composition for the cap layer (203) isAlAs. In this embodiment, the defect-free layer (206) preferably iscomposed of Ga_(1-x)In_(x)As, with the same composition “x” as the layer(201).

When the layer (201) is composed of the semiconductor alloyGa_(1-x)In_(x)N, the cap layer (203) is preferably AlN. In thisembodiment, the defect-free layer (206) is preferably formed ofGa_(1-x)In_(x)N, with the same composition “x” as the layer (201).

If the layer (201) is GaN, the preferred embodiment for the cap layer(203) is AlN and the defect-free layer is preferably GaN.

In another embodiment of the present invention, a thin pseudomorphiclayer is deposited on the substrate or a first epilayer containingdefects prior to the cap layer (203) being deposited. This pseudomorphiclayer possesses two properties. First, the thickness of thepseudomorphic layer is below the critical thickness at which theformation of new defects occurs. In addition, the pseudomorphic layerprovides necessary selectivity for the further deposition of the caplayer (203) such that the cap layer material grows on the defect-freeregions and does not grow in the vicinity of the defects that havepropagated from the substrate or the first epilayer to the surface ofthe pseudomorphic layer.

In a preferred application of this embodiment, the materials are adefected GaAs substrate, onto which a thin pseudomorphicGa_(1-x)In_(x)As layer is deposited, onto which a thin AlAs cap layer isdeposited. Then, the structure is overgrown by GaAs, which forms adefect-free epitaxial layer.

In another embodiment of the present invention, a thin pseudomorphiclayer is deposited on the defect-free epitaxial layer. Preferredmaterials for this embodiment include a Si_(1-x)Ge_(x) epitaxial layercontaining propagating defects, capped by a thin Si cap layer, ontowhich a defect-free Si_(1-x)Ge_(x) layer is deposited, onto which a thinpseudomorphic strained Si layer is deposited.

In another embodiment of the present invention, the evaporation rate ofthe defect-regions is increased by enhancement of the evaporationprocess. This process is preferably enhanced by chemical etching using aflux of chemically-active atoms or molecules or by plasma etching whenthe uncovered material in the vicinity of defects has a higher etchingrate due to plasma-assisted or chemical etching than the cap material.In this case, the temperature should be sufficient to provide enoughenergy for the chemical or plasma reaction to occur.

In another embodiment, wet etching eliminates the defected regions suchthat the uncovered material in the vicinity of the defects has a higheretching rate than the cap material.

The long-range order of the crystal lattice is not necessary to themethod of the present invention. The same approach can be used forselective defect elimination in any solid-state materials, including butnot limited to organic materials, glasses, or photoresists.

FIG. 3 shows the method according to another embodiment of the presentinvention. FIGS. 3(a) through 3(e) are the same as FIGS. 2(a) through2(e), respectively. FIG. 3(f) shows a cross section of the structureafter the overgrowth process. The third material forms a defect-freeepitaxial layer, suitable as a template for further epitaxial growth. Inthis embodiment, the material of the overgrowth layer (206) coverstroughs (204) completely, and no voids remain after the overgrowth.

FIG. 4 shows the method according to an alternative embodiment of thepresent invention. FIG. 4(a) shows an epitaxial layer (401) grown on asubstrate (411). The thickness of the epitaxial layer exceeds thecritical thickness for the formation of defects. Thus propagatingdefects are formed in the epitaxial layer. The epitaxial layer (401) hasa first thermal evaporation rate and is preferably lattice-mismatchedwith respect to the substrate (411). When the thickness of the layer(401) exceeds the critical thickness required for the creation ofdefects, defects (202) form, and the layer (401) continues to growmetamorphically. The layer (401) comprises large domains (403) that aredefect-free and have a lattice parameter close to or nearly equal to thelattice parameter of unstrained material forming the layer (401). Thesedomains are separated by relatively narrow regions in the vicinity ofthe extended defects (202).

Preferred materials for the substrate (411) include, but are not limitedto semiconductors such as Si, GaAs, GaSb, InP, SiC, or sapphire. Apreferred material for the epitaxial layer (401) is a materiallattice-mismatched to the substrate (411).

FIG. 4(b) illustrates a difference between the strain state of thesurface regions (421) far from the extended defects (202) and thesurface regions (422) in the vicinity of the extended defects (202).

FIG. 4(c) shows schematically the epitaxial structure after thedeposition of the cap layer (203). The cap layer (203) has a secondthermal evaporation rate lower than the first thermal evaporation rate.The cap layer (203) covers the surface regions (421) of the epitaxiallayer (401) far from the extended defects, whereas the surface regions(422) in the vicinity of the extended defects remain uncovered. Thedefect-free regions of the first layer are now covered, and regions ofthe first layer in the vicinity of the defects remain uncovered.

FIG. 4(d) shows the epitaxial structure after the thermal annealingstep. The uncovered parts of the surface of the first layer at the exitsof the defects are annealed and troughs form. Since the cap layer (203)has a lower thermal evaporation rate than the layer (401), a thermalannealing regime (temperature and duration) is selected such that thelayer (203) remains unaffected whereas the uncovered regions of thelayer (401) in the vicinity of the defects (202) at least partiallyevaporate. Troughs (204) are formed in the vicinity of the exits (205)of the defects.

FIG. 4(e) shows the epitaxial structure after the overgrowth step. Thetroughs are now overgrown from the sides, and a defect-free epitaxiallayer of the third material has been formed. Voids are formed at theexits of the defects of the first layer. The material and the thermalannealing regime of the overgrowth step are preferably selected so thatthe lateral epitaxial overgrowth mode occurs. Regions of the overgrowthlayer (406) start to form on top of the cap layer (203) and then merge,forming a defect-free epitaxial layer (406). Troughs (204) over theexits of the defects (205) create, after the overgrowth, voids (207) inthe epitaxial structure. The defect-free epitaxial layer (406) ispreferably selected such that it has a lattice parameter close to orequal to the lattice parameter of the unstrained material forming thelayer (401), and therefore is lattice-mismatched to the substrate (411).Thus, a defect-free layer (406), lattice-mismatched to the substrate(411) and suitable for a further epitaxial growth, is formed.

Table 1 shows different preferable combinations of materials to be usedin the layers of the device. For example, in one embodiment, if thesubstrate (411) is formed of Si, the epitaxial layer (401) is preferablyformed of Ga_(1-x)In_(x)As, the cap layer (203) is preferably formed ofAlAs, and the defect-free epitaxial layer (406) is preferably formed ofGa_(1-x-y)In_(x)Al_(y)As having the same composition “x” as theepitaxial layer (401). Note that the aluminum composition “y” hardlyaffects the lattice parameter, and the two layers remain nearlylattice-matched irrespective of “y”.

In another embodiment shown in Table 1, the substrate (411) is Si withthe surface orientation (111), the epitaxial layer (401) is GaN, the caplayer (203) is AlN, and the defect-free layer (406) is preferably formedof GaN.

TABLE 1 Cap Substrate Epitaxial layer Epitaxial Layer (411) Layer (401)(203) (406) Comments Si Si_(1−x)Ge_(x) Si Si_(1−x)Ge_(x) Composition “x”same in layers (401) and (406) Si Ga_(1−x)In_(x)As AlAs Ga_(1−x)In_(x)AsComposition “x” same in layers (401) and (406) Si Ga_(1−x)In_(x)As AlAsGa_(1−x−y)In_(x)Al_(y)As Composition “x” same in layers (401) and (406)GaAs Ga_(1−x)In_(x)As AlAs Ga_(1−x)In_(x)As Composition “x” same inlayers (401) and (406) GaAs Ga_(1−x)In_(x)As AlAsGa_(1−x−y)In_(x)Al_(y)As Composition “x” same in layers (401) and (406)Si(111) GaN AlN GaN Si(111) Ga_(1−x)In_(x)N AlN Ga_(1−x)In_(x)NComposition “x” same in layers (401) and (406) Si(111)Ga_(1−x−y)In_(x)Al_(y)N AlN Ga_(1−x−y)In_(x)Al_(y)N Composition “x” and“y” same in layers (401) and (406) SiC GaN AlN GaN SiC Ga_(1−x)In_(x)NAlN Ga_(1−x)In_(x)N Composition “x” same in layers (401) and (406) SiCGa_(1−x−y)In_(x)Al_(y)N AlN Ga_(1−x−y)In_(x)Al_(y)N Composition “x” and“y” same in layers (401) and (406) Sapphire GaN AlN GaN SapphireGa_(1−x)In_(x)N AlN Ga_(1−x)In_(x)N Composition “x” same in layers (401)and (406) Sapphire Ga_(1−x−y)In_(x)Al_(y)N AlN Ga_(1−x−y)In_(x)Al_(y)NComposition “x” and “y” same in layers (401) and (406)

In another embodiment, a thin pseudomorphic layer of strained Si isgrown on a defect-free metamorphic Si_(1-x)Ge_(x), layer. As anotherexample, if the substrate (411) is Si, the epitaxial layer (401) ispreferably GaAs, onto which a thin pseudomorphic layer ofGa_(1-x)In_(x)As is deposited, which is followed by a thin cap layerpreferably formed of AlAs, followed by the defect-free GaAs layer.

FIG. 5 shows schematically the method according to another embodiment ofthe present invention. FIGS. 5(a) through 5(d) correspond to FIGS. 4(a)through 4(d), respectively.

FIG. 5(e) shows a cross section of the structure after the overgrowthstep. In this embodiment, the troughs are overgrown from the sides, anda defect-free epitaxial layer of the third material is formed. Thetroughs are now filled with the third material, and there are no voids.In this embodiment, the material of the overgrowth layer (406) coverstroughs (204) completely, and no voids remain after the overgrowth.Thus, a defect-free layer (406), lattice-mismatched to the substrate(411) and suitable for a further epitaxial growth, is formed.

The present method of fabrication of defect-free epitaxial layers grownon top of plastically relaxed layers can be employed widely inpractically all types of semiconductor devices. Some of these devicesinclude, but are not limited to, high electron mobility transistors,field effect transistors, heterojunction bipolar transistors, integratedcircuits, diode lasers, light-emitting diodes, photodetectors, opticalamplifiers, far infrared intraband detectors, intraband far infraredemitters, resonant tunneling diodes, solar cells, optically bistabledevices, current-injection edge-emitting lasers, vertical cavity surfaceemitting lasers, and tilted cavity lasers.

In particular, the fabrication of high electron mobility transistors(HEMT) requires materials with a high mobility. These materials arefrequently lattice-mismatched to commercially available substrates, likeSi, GaAs, SiC or sapphire. Application of the method of the presentinvention allows for fabrication of defect-free layers on top ofplastically relaxed layers, thus allowing for the fabrication of anydesired material, defect-free.

In an embodiment of the present invention, a high electron mobilitytransistor (HEMT) is fabricated on a defect-free Ga_(1-x)In_(x)As layer,grown on top of a plastically relaxed Ga_(1-x)In_(x)As layer, which isgrown on top of a Si or GaAs substrate.

In another embodiment of the present invention, a high electron mobilitytransistor (HEMT) is fabricated on a defect-free GaN layer grown on topof a plastically relaxed GaN layer, which is grown on top of a substrateincluding, but not limited to, Si (111), SiC, or sapphire.

In yet another embodiment of the present invention, a high electronmobility transistor (HEMT) is fabricated on a defect-freeGa_(1-y)In_(y)N layer, grown on top of a plastically relaxedGa_(1-x)In_(x)N layer, which is grown on top of a substrate composed ofa material including, but not limited to, Si (111), SiC, or sapphire,where the composition “y” is preferably close to the composition “x”.

In an alternative embodiment of the present invention, a high electronmobility transistor (HEMT) is fabricated on a defect-freeGa_(1-z-t)In_(z)Al_(t)N layer, grown on top of a plastically relaxedGa_(1-x-y)In_(x)Al_(y)N layer, which is grown on top of a substrateincluding, but not limited to, a Si (111) substrate, a SiC substrate, ora sapphire substrate, where the composition “z” is preferably close tothe composition “x”, and the composition “t” is preferably close to thecomposition “x”.

Another embodiment for a high mobility material is biaxially strained Sisuch that four valleys of the conduction band are shifted to higherenergy and become depopulated, whereas the remaining two valleys of theconduction band shift to a lower energy and remain populated. Then, thelongitudinal effective mass which governs the in-plane mobility ofelectrons significantly decreases, resulting in a substantial increaseof mobility. Thus, a thin pseudomorphically strained Si layer is grownon top of a defect-free Si_(1-y)Ge_(y) layer, which is grown on top of aplastically relaxed Si_(1-x)Ge_(x) layer, which is grown on top of a Sisubstrate. This structure can be used in integrated circuits.

Another group of embodiments of the present invention refers tosemiconductor diode lasers on a GaAs substrate. A need to shift thewavelength of emitted laser light to the wavelength region from 1.4 to1.8 μm requires using active regions formed of an alloyGa_(1-y)In_(y)As. To form these active regions without defects, adefect-free layer of Ga_(1-y)In_(y)As is grown on a plastically relaxedGa_(1-x)In_(x)As layer, which is grown on a GaAs substrate.

FIG. 6 shows a high electron mobility transistor (HEMT) (600) grownaccording to another embodiment of the present invention. In thisembodiment, the undoped regions are formed using the method of FIG. 1,and an n-channel is self-formed in a part of the undoped region. Thestructure is grown epitaxially on a substrate (611). In a preferredembodiment, the substrate (611) is composed of undoped GaAs. Theepitaxial layer (601) is preferably composed of undopedGa_(1-x)In_(x)As, and the thickness of the layer (601) exceeds thecritical thickness required for plastic relaxation such that the layer(601) is plastically relaxed and contains propagating defects (202). Thecap layer (603) is preferably a thin layer of AlAs. The layer (606) ispreferably formed of undoped Ga_(1−y)In_(y)As, having the composition“y” preferably close or equal to the composition “x” of the layer (601).According to another embodiment of the present invention described indetail in FIG. 4, the layer (606) has a substantially reduced density ofdefects compared to the layer (601) and may be considered defect-free.

The layer (681) is grown epitaxially on the layer (606) and ispreferably formed of undoped Ga_(1-z-t)In_(z)Al_(t)As, where the indiumcomposition “z” is preferably close or equal to the composition “y” ofthe layer (606) such that the layer (681) is lattice-matched or nearlylattice-matched to the layer (606).

The layer (682) is grown epitaxially on the layer (681) and ispreferably composed of n-doped Ga_(1-r-s)In_(r)Al_(s)As, where theindium composition “r” is preferably close or equal to the composition“y” of the layer (606) such that the layer (682) is lattice-matched ornearly lattice-matched to the layers (606) and (681). The layer (682) isn-doped, preferably to the donor density 10¹⁸ cm⁻³ or above. Possibledonor impurities include, but are not limited to, S, Se, or Te, andamphoteric impurities including Si, Ge, or Sn. The latter are introducedunder such technological conditions that they are incorporatedpredominantly into the cation sublattice and serve as donor impurities.The preferred embodiment is n-doping by Si impurities.

Regions (686) and (687) are regions, which have persisted from then⁺-doped layer after a part of it has been etched off. They are formedpreferably from Ga_(1-r)In_(r)As, having the same indium composition “r”as the layer (682), and are n-doped preferably to a higher doping levelthan the layer (682).

N-contacts (691) and (692) are preferably formed from multi-layeredmetal structures. They can be formed from, but are not limited to, thestructure Ni—Au—Ge. The contact (693) is a gate forming Schottky barrier(688) on the metal-semiconductor interface.

The HEMT (600) operates as follows. Energy positions of the donor levelsin the layer (682) are at higher energies than the bottom on theconduction band in the layer (606). Therefore electrons from the donorlevels move due to thermal activation and/or tunneling through thebarrier (681) from the layer (682) to the layer (606). Then the ionizeddonors in the layer (682) positively charge the layer (682), whileexcess electrons in the layer (606) negatively charge the layer (606).This generates an electric field, which hinders further charging of thestructure and attracts electrons in the layer (606) to theheterojunction with the barrier (681). The electrons in the layer (606)thus form a two-dimensional electron gas in a narrow layer (676). Theelectrons in this two-dimensional electron gas have a high mobilitybecause scattering by ionized donor impurities is reduced as donors arespatially separated from the electron gas (as usual in HEMTs). Inaddition, the electron gas is formed in a Ga_(1-y)In_(y)As material,where electrons have a higher mobility than in GaAs.

A bias (696) is applied between the source (691) and the drain (692),allowing a current of electrons from the source (691) to the drain (692)through the highly conductive n-channel (676). The voltage (697) appliedto the gate (693) controls the electron density in the channel (676) andthus controls the current through the channel. The HEMT (600) ispreferably used, for example, as a high-frequency amplifier, or as alogic element in integrated circuits.

In another embodiment of the present invention, a high electron mobilitytransistor is formed under such technological conditions that thedefect-free epitaxial contains no voids.

FIG. 7 shows a vertical cavity surface emitting laser (VCSEL) (700)fabricated using the method of the present invention. One embodiment ofa VCSEL shown schematically in FIG. 7 is a GaAs-based VCSEL emitting alaser light at the wavelength in the wavelength region from 1.4 to 1.8μm. VCSEL (700) comprises a cavity (740) sandwiched between a bottomdistributed Bragg reflector (bottom DBR) (752) and a top distributedBragg reflector (top DBR) (754). The bottom DBR (752) is grownepitaxially on a substrate (751).

Different designs for the bottom mirror (752) and for the top mirror(754) can be used, as described, e.g. in Vertical-CavitySurface-Emitting Lasers: Design, Fabrication, Characterization, andApplications by C. W. Wilmsen, H. Temkin, L. A. Coldren (editors),Cambridge University Press, 1999. The preferred embodiment for thebottom mirror (752) is an n-doped multi-layered semiconductor mirrorGaAs/GaAlAs. The preferred embodiment for the top mirror (754) is ap-doped multi-layered semiconductor mirror GaAs/GaAlAs.

The structure is grown epitaxially on the substrate (751). The substrate(751) is preferably formed from any III-V semiconductor material orIll-V semiconductor alloy, for example, GaAs, InP, or GaSb, and isn-doped. The preferred embodiment for the substrate (751) is n-dopedGaAs.

A distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) is used for the bottom mirror (752).The cavity (740) comprises an n-doped region (730), an active region(741), and a p-doped region (742).

The n-doped region (730) of the cavity is made by using the defectreduction method shown in FIG. 1 and FIG. 4. The layer (731) islattice-matched to the substrate (751). The layer (721) has a predefinedlattice parameter value and is preferably lattice-mismatched to thelayer (731) (and to the substrate (751)). The thickness of the layer(721) exceeds the critical thickness required to create extendeddefects, thus extended defects (722) form. The layer (722) is covered bya thin cap layer (723). The cap layer (723) covers defect-free regionsof the layer (721) and does not cover the regions in the vicinity of thedefects. After the thermal annealing step, troughs are formed over theexits (725) of the defects (722). Overgrowth of the layer (726) proceedsin the lateral epitaxial overgrowth mode, and forms a defect-free layer(726). Voids (727) are formed over the exits of the defects. Thedefect-free layer (726) is preferably lattice-matched to the layer(721). Thus, the defect-free layer (726) has a predefined latticeparameter value and is preferably lattice-mismatched to the layer (731)and to the substrate (751).

The layer (731) is preferably formed of a semiconductor,lattice-matched, or nearly lattice-matched to the substrate (751),transparent to the generated laser light and n-doped. The preferredembodiment is an n-doped GaAs layer (731).

The layer (721) is formed of a semiconductor, transparent to thegenerated laser light, n-doped, and, preferably lattice-mismatched tothe substrate (751). The preferred embodiment is an n-dopedGa_(1-x)In_(x)As layer (721).

The layer (723) is preferably composed of a material with the followingcharacteristics: transparency to the generated laser light, n-doped, alower thermal evaporation rate than the material of the layer (721), andselective coverage of the defect-free surface regions. The preferredmaterial for the layer (723) for GaAs-based systems is AlAs.

The layer (726) is formed of a semiconductor, transparent to thegenerated laser light, n-doped, and, preferably, lattice-matched ornearly lattice matched to the layer (721). The preferred embodiment isan n-doped In_(1-x)Ga_(x)As layer (726) with the same indium content asin the layer (721).

The defect-free layer (726) is suitable for further epitaxial growth. Anactive region (741) is grown epitaxially on top of the layer (726). Thep-doped region (742) of the cavity is grown epitaxially on top of theactive region (741). The top DBR (754) is used for the top mirror and isgrown epitaxially on top of the p-doped part of the cavity (742).

The active element (741) is preferably formed by any insertion, theenergy band gap of which is narrower than that of the layers (726) and(721). Possible active elements include, but are not limited to, asingle-layer or a multi-layer system of quantum wells, quantum wires,quantum dots, or any combination thereof. In one example of the deviceon a GaAs-substrate, preferred embodiments for the active elementinclude, but are not limited to, a system of insertions of InAs,Ga_(1-x)In_(x)As, In_(x)Ga_(1-x-y)Al_(y)As, In_(x)Ga_(1-x)As_(1-y)N_(y)or similar insertions. A preferred embodiment uses a single-layer or amulti-layer of In_(1-x)Ga_(x)As quantum wells or quantum dots having alarger indium content than the one in the layers (721) and (726).

In another embodiment of the present invention, the active element (741)is a strained-compensated multi-layered structure. In this embodiment,the layer (726) is Ga_(1-x)In_(x)As with an indium content x₀. Theactive layer is formed by a sequence of alternating layers of quantumwells, quantum wires or quantum dots formed by the deposition ofGa_(1-x)In_(x)As with the indium content x₁>x₀ separated by spacerlayers formed by the deposition of Ga_(1-x)In_(x)As with the indiumcontent x₂<x₀, such that the active layer (741) is on averagelattice-matched or nearly lattice-matched to the layer (721).

The p-region (742) of the cavity is formed from a material, transparentto the generated laser light and preferably lattice-matched to the layer(726), and doped by an acceptor impurity. For an embodiment based on aGaAs substrate, the layer (742) is preferably a layer of p-dopedGa_(1-x)In_(x)As having the same indium content as the layer (726).Possible acceptor impurities include, but are not limited to Be, Mg, Zn,Cd, Pb, or Mn and amphoteric impurities like Si, Ge, or Sn. The latterare introduced under such technological conditions that they areincorporated predominantly into the anion sublattice and serve asacceptor impurities.

The n-contact (761) is mounted on the bottom side of the substrate(751). The p-contact (762) is mounted on top of the top DBR (754). TheVCSEL (700) operates under a forward bias (763) applied through thestructure to the active region (741). Generated laser light (756) comesout through the optical aperture (755).

The metal contacts (761) and (762) are preferably multi-layered metalstructures. The contact to the n-doped layer, i.e. contact (761), ispreferably formed from the structure including, but not limited to,Ni—Au—Ge. The contact to the p-doped layer, i.e. contact (762), ispreferably formed by the structure including, but not limited to,Ti—Pt—Au.

In another embodiment of the present invention, a vertical cavitysurface emitting laser is formed under such technological conditionsthat the defect-free epitaxial layer grown on top of the defectcontaining epitaxial layer is formed such that no voids occur.

FIG. 8 shows an edge-emitting semiconductor diode laser (800) in anotherembodiment of the present invention. One embodiment of the edge-emittinglaser is a GaAs-based edge-emitting laser emitting a laser light at awavelength in the wavelength region from 1.4 to 1.8 μm. The waveguide(840) is sandwiched between an n-cladding layer (852) and a p-claddinglayer (854).

N-cladding layer (852) is grown epitaxially on a substrate (751). Thelayer (852), formed of a material preferably lattice-matched or nearlylattice-matched to the substrate (751), is transparent to the generatedlaser light, and has a refractive index lower than the averagerefractive index of the waveguide (840). Layer (852) is also doped by adonor impurity. For a GaAs-based device, the preferred material forlayer (852) is n-doped Ga_(1-x)Al_(x)As.

The waveguide (840) comprises an n-doped region (830), an active region(841), and a p-doped region (842). The n-doped region (830) isfabricated using the defect reduction method of the present invention,preferably similarly to the n-doped region of the cavity in the VCSELshown in FIG. 7.

The active element (841) is preferably formed by any insertion, theenergy band gap of which is narrower than that of the layers (726) and(721). Possible active elements include, but are not limited to, asingle-layer or a multi-layer system of quantum wells, quantum wires,quantum dots, or any combination thereof. In a device on aGaAs-substrate, preferred embodiments for the active element include,but are not limited to, a system of insertions of InAs,In_(1-x)Ga_(x)As, In_(x)Ga_(1-x-y)Al_(y)As, In_(x)Ga_(1-x)As_(1-y)N_(y)or similar materials. A preferred embodiment is a single-layer or amulti-layer of In_(1-x)Ga_(x)As quantum wells or quantum dots having alarger indium content than the indium content in the layers (721) and(726).

In another embodiment of the present invention, the active element (841)is preferably a strained-compensated multi-layered structure. In thisembodiment, the layer (726) is Ga_(1-x)In_(x)As with an indium contentx₀. The active region includes a sequence of alternating layers ofquantum wells, quantum wires or quantum dots formed by the deposition ofGa_(1-x)In_(x)As with the indium content x₁>x₀, separated by spacerlayers formed by the deposition of Ga_(1-x)In_(x)As with the indiumcontent x₂<x₀, such that the active layer (841) is on averagelattice-matched or nearly lattice-matched to the layer (721).

The p-region (842) of the waveguide (840) is composed of a materialtransparent to the generated laser light, preferably lattice-matched ornearly lattice-matched to the layer (726), and doped by an acceptorimpurity. A preferred embodiment is p-doped In_(1-x)Ga_(x)As with thesame indium content as in the layer (726).

The p-cladding layer (854) is preferably composed of any material,transparent to the generated laser light, having a lower-refractiveindex than the average refractive index of the waveguide (840), anddoped by an acceptor impurity. For a GaAs-based device, the preferredmaterial is p-doped Ga_(1-x)In_(x)As.

The edge-emitting laser (800) operates under a forward bias (763)applied through the structure to the active region (841). The waveguide(840) and the cladding layers (852) and (854) form an optical mode oflaser radiation, and the laser light comes out 856 through the frontfacet 850.

Another embodiment of the present invention is a tilted cavity laser(TCL) made according to a design described in the paper by N. N.Ledentsov and V. A. Shchukin, “Novel Concepts for Injection Lasers”,Optical Engineering, Vol. 41 (12), pp. 3193-3203 (2002), which isincorporated herein by reference. Briefly, a tilted cavity laser ispreferably designed such that a cavity is sandwiched between a bottommirror and a top mirror. Both mirrors are preferably designed asmultilayered mirrors. The major difference between a VCSEL and a TCL isthat both the cavity and the mirrors in a TCL are in resonance to anoptical mode, which propagate at a certain angle ∂ to the normal to themirror planes.

There are many advantages to a tilted cavity laser. First, a tiltedcavity laser may be used as both a surface emitting laser and an edgeemitting laser. Second, the resonant conditions for the cavity and themirrors are independent, thus providing a selection of both the angle ∂and the wavelength of the emitted laser light. Third, the reflectivityof a tilted mode from a multilayered mirror is significantly higher thanthat of a vertical mode, which allows the device to reach the same highfinesse of the cavity by using a mirror having a smaller number oflayers and a smaller total thickness. Fourth, when a tilted cavity laseris used as a surface emitting laser, one of the preferred embodiments issuch that the angle ∂ exceeds the angle of the total internalreflectance at the boundary between the semiconductor material of acavity and the vacuum, and the emitted laser light is directly coupledvia the near field to an optical fiber. This significantly reducesdiffraction losses at the coupling to a fiber. Fifth, when a tiltedcavity laser is used as an edge-emitting laser, it provides a strongwavelength stabilization of the emitted laser light. In a preferredembodiment of the present invention, at least part of the cavity of theTCL is formed by a method of the present invention.

Yet another embodiment of the present invention is a GaAs-based tiltedcavity laser. This laser emits laser light at a wavelength in thewavelength region 1.4 to 1.8 μm and beyond.

An alternative embodiment of the present invention is a GaN-basededge-emitting laser, in which at least a part of the waveguide is madeby using the method of the present invention. This laser emits laserlight in the wavelength region from green light to ultraviolet light.

Another embodiment of the present invention is a GaN-based verticalcavity surface emitting laser. At least part of the cavity in the VCSELis made by a method of the present invention. This laser emits laserlight in the wavelength region from green light to ultraviolet light.

In yet another embodiment of the present invention, a GaN-based tiltedcavity laser (TCL), in which at least a part of the cavity is made by amethod of the present invention, emits laser light in the wavelengthregion from green light to ultraviolet light.

It is appreciated that certain features of the invention, which are, forclarity, described in the context of separate embodiments, may also beprovided in combination in a single embodiment. Conversely, variousfeatures of the invention, which are, for brevity, described in thecontext of a single embodiment, may also be provided separately or inany suitable subcombination.

All publications, patents and patent applications mentioned in thisspecification are herein incorporated in their entirety by referenceinto the specification, to the same extent as if each individualpublication, patent or patent application was specifically andindividually indicated to be incorporated herein by reference. Inaddition, citation or identification of any reference in thisapplication shall not be construed as an admission that such referenceis available as prior art to the present invention.

Although the invention has been illustrated and described with respectto exemplary embodiments thereof, it should be understood by thoseskilled in the art that foregoing and various other changes, omissionsand additions may be made therein and thereto, without departing fromthe spirit and scope of the present invention. Therefore, the presentinvention should not be understood as limited to the specificembodiments set out above but to include all possible embodiments whichcan be embodied within a scope encompassed and equivalents thereof withrespect to the features set out in the appended claims.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method for fabrication of defect-free epitaxiallayers on top of a surface of a first solid state material having afirst thermal evaporation rate and a plurality of defects, wherein thesurface comprises at least one defect-free surface region, and at leastone surface region in a vicinity of the defects, comprising the stepsof: a) depositing a cap layer comprising a second material having asecond thermal evaporation rate different from the first thermalevaporation rate, wherein the cap layer is selectively deposited on thedefect-free surface regions, such that at least one of the surfaceregions in the vicinity of the defects remains uncovered; b) annealing astructure created in step a) at a temperature and duration such that atleast one of the surface regions in the vicinity of the defects that isuncovered evaporates, while defect-free surface regions covered by thecap layer remain unaffected, and at least one annealed region is formed;and c) depositing a third material, lattice-matched or nearly latticematched to the first solid state material, such that the third materialovergrows both the cap layer and annealed regions of the first solidstate material, forming a defect-free epitaxial layer.
 2. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the first solid state material is selected from thegroup consisting of: a) a defect-containing substrate; and b) adefect-containing epitaxial layer.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein atleast one of the defects is a propagating defect selected from the groupconsisting of: a) at least one threading dislocation; b) at least onescrew dislocation; c) at least one stacking fault; d) at least oneantiphase boundary; and e) any combination of a) through d).
 4. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the defects comprise at least one localdefect which causes a propagating defect in a subsequently depositedepitaxial layer.
 5. The method of claim 4, wherein the local defect isselected from the group consisting of: a) at least one localdislocation; b) at least one misfit dislocation; c) at least one localdefect dipole; d) at least one dislocation network; e) at least onedislocation loop; f) at least one dislocated cluster; g) at least oneimpurity precipitate; h) at least one oval defect; i) a plurality ofdirt particles on the surface; and j) any combination of a) through i).6. The method of claim 1, wherein step (a) comprises a depositionprocess selected from the group consisting of: a) molecular beam epitaxydeposition; b) metal-organic chemical vapor deposition; and c) vaporphase epitaxy deposition.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein step Cc)comprises a deposition process selected from the group consisting of: a)molecular beam epitaxy deposition; b) metal-organic chemical vapordeposition; and c) vapor phase epitaxy deposition.
 8. The method ofclaim 1, wherein steps (a) and (b) are repeated two times to twentytimes.
 9. The method of claim 1, wherein steps (a) through (c) arerepeated two times to forty times.
 10. The method of claim 1, whereinthe surface region in the vicinity of the defects differs from thedefect-free surface region in a strain state, such that the cap layer isrepelled from and does not cover the surface region in the vicinity ofthe defects.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein the surface region inthe vicinity of the defects differs from the defect-free surface regionin a surface energy, such that the cap layer is repelled from and doesnot cover the surface region in the vicinity of the defects.
 12. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the surface region in the vicinity of thedefects differs from the defect-free surface region in a surface stress,such that the cap layer is repelled from and does not cover the surfaceregion in the vicinity of the defects.
 13. The method of claim 1,wherein the surface region in the vicinity of the defects differs fromthe defect-free surface region in a surface morphology, such that thecap layer is repelled from and does not cover the surface region in thevicinity of the defects.
 14. The method of claim 1, wherein the surfaceregion in the vicinity of the defects differs from the defect-freesurface region in at least one wetting/non-wetting property with respectto the deposition of the cap layer material, such that the cap layer isrepelled from and does not cover the surface region in the vicinity ofthe defects.
 15. The method of claim 1, wherein an evaporation of thedefect-containing regions is enhanced by chemical etching using a fluxof chemically-active particles, wherein the chemically-active particlesare selected from the group consisting of: a) atoms; b) molecules; andc) ions.
 16. The method of claim 1, wherein an evaporation of thedefect-containing regions is enhanced by a plasma etching process. 17.The method of claim 1, wherein an evaporation of the defect-containingregions is enhanced by a wet etching process.
 18. The method of claim 1,wherein the thermal annealing in step (b) results in the formation oftroughs at a plurality of exits of the defects in the first solid statematerial.
 19. The method of claim 1, wherein an overgrowth of the thirdmaterial in step (c) occurs in a lateral epitaxial overgrowth mode. 20.The method of claim 19, wherein step (c) comprises the substeps of: a)starting growth of the third material at the surface regions covered bythe cap layer; b) continuing the growth of the third material in alateral plane, resulting in merging of neighboring domains of lateralepitaxial overgrowth; and c) forming the defect-free epitaxial layerfrom the third material, wherein the defect-free epitaxial layer issuitable for further epitaxial growth.
 21. The method of claim 1,wherein at least one void remains in the third material.
 22. The methodof claim 1, wherein no voids remain in the third material.
 23. Themethod of claim 1, further comprising the step of, prior to step (a),the deposition of a fourth material, lattice-matched or nearlylattice-matched to the first solid state material, wherein the fourthmaterial provides a repulsion of the cap layer from defect-containingsurface regions.
 24. The method of claim 1, further comprising the stepof, prior to step (a), the deposition of a fourth material, wherein thefourth material is in a no-strain state lattice-mismatched to the firstsolid state material, wherein a thickness of the fourth material isbelow the critical thickness required for a creation of new defects,such that the fourth material forms a strained defect-free thinpseudomorphic layer.
 25. The method of claim 24, wherein thepseudomorphic layer provides a repulsion of the cap layer fromdefect-containing surface regions.
 26. A method for fabricatingdefect-free templates suitable for further epitaxial growth, wherein thedefect-free templates are lattice-mismatched to a substrate, comprisingthe steps of: a) depositing a first epitaxial layer having a firstthermal evaporation rate, wherein the first epitaxial layer islattice-mismatched to the substrate, wherein a thickness of the firstepitaxial layer exceeds a critical thickness required for a formation ofdefects, such that a plurality of defects are formed in the firstepitaxial layer, such that a surface of said first epitaxial layercomprises at least one defect-free surface region, and at least onesurface region in a vicinity of the defects; b) depositing a cap layerof a second material having a second thermal evaporation rate differentfrom the first thermal evaporation rate, such that the cap layer isselectively deposited on the defect-free surface regions, and at leastone of the surface regions in the vicinity of the defects remainsuncovered; c) annealing a structure formed in step b) at a temperatureand duration such that at least one of the surface regions in thevicinity of the defects that is uncovered evaporates, while defect-freesurface regions covered by the cap layer remain unaffected, and at leastone annealed region is formed; and d) depositing a third material,lattice-matched or nearly lattice matched to the first epitaxial layer,such that the third material overgrows both the cap layer and annealedregions of the first epitaxial layer, forming a defect-free epitaxiallayer suitable as a template for further epitaxial growth.
 27. Themethod of claim 26, wherein at least one defect is a propagating defectselected from the group consisting of: a) at least one threadingdislocation; b) at least one screw dislocation; c) at least one stackingfault; d) at least one antiphase boundary; and e) any combination of a)through d).
 28. The method of claim 26, wherein the defects formed inthe first epitaxial layer comprise at least one local defect located atthe surface of the first epitaxial layer, wherein the local defectcauses a propagating defect in subsequently deposited epitaxial layers.29. The method of claim 28, wherein the local defect is selected fromthe group consisting of: a) at least one local dislocation; b) at leastone misfit dislocation; c) at least one local defect dipole; d) at leastone dislocation network; e) at least one dislocation loop; f) at leastone dislocated cluster; g) at least one impurity precipitate; h) atleast one oval defect; i) a plurality of dirt particles on the surface;and j) any combination of a) through i).
 30. The method of claim 26,wherein step (a) comprises a deposition process selected from the groupconsisting of: a) molecular beam epitaxy deposition; b) metal-organicchemical vapor deposition; and c) vapor phase epitaxy deposition. 31.The method of claim 26, wherein step (b) comprises a deposition processselected from the group consisting of: a) molecular beam epitaxydeposition; b) metal-organic chemical vapor deposition; and c) vaporphase epitaxy.
 32. The method of claim 26, wherein step (d) comprises adeposition process selected from the group consisting of: a) molecularbeam epitaxy deposition; b) metal-organic chemical vapor deposition; andc) vapor phase epitaxy deposition.
 33. The method of claim 26, whereinsteps (a) and (b) are repeated two to twenty times.
 34. The method ofclaim 26, wherein steps (b) and (c) are repeated two to forty times. 35.The method of claim 26, wherein steps (a) through (c) are repeated twoto forty times.
 36. The method of claim 26, wherein steps (b) through(d) are repeated two to forty times.
 37. The method of claim 26, whereinsteps (a) through (d) are repeated two to forty times.
 38. The method ofclaim 26, wherein the surface region in the vicinity of the defectsdiffers from the defect-free surface region in a strain state, such thatthe cap layer is repelled from and does not cover the surface region inthe vicinity of the defects.
 39. The method of claim 26, wherein thesurface region in the vicinity of the defects differs from thedefect-free surface region in a surface energy, such that the cap layeris repelled from and does not cover the surface region in the vicinityof the defects.
 40. The method of claim 26, wherein the surface regionin the vicinity of the defects differs from the defect-free surfaceregion in a surface stress, such that the cap layer is repelled from anddoes not cover the surface region in the vicinity of the defects. 41.The method of claim 26, wherein the surface region in the vicinity ofthe defects differs from the defect-free surface region in a surfacemorphology, such that the cap layer is repelled from and does not coverthe surface region in the vicinity of the defects.
 42. The method ofclaim 26, wherein the surface region in the vicinity of the defectsdiffers from the defect-free surface region in at least onewetting/non-wetting property with respect to the deposition of the caplayer, such that the cap layer is repelled from and does not cover thesurface region in the vicinity of the defects.
 43. The method of claim26, wherein an evaporation of the defect-containing regions is enhancedby chemical etching using a flux of chemically-active particles, whereinthe chemically-active particles are selected from the group consistingof: a) atoms; b) molecules; and c) ions.
 44. The method of claim 26,wherein an evaporation of the defect-containing regions is enhanced by aplasma etching process.
 45. The method of claim 26, wherein anevaporation of the defect-containing regions is enhanced by a wetetching process.
 46. The method of claim 26, wherein the thermalannealing in step (c) results in the formation of troughs at a pluralityof exits of the defects of the first epitaxial layer.
 47. The method ofclaim 26, wherein an overgrowth of the second epitaxial layer in step(d) occurs in a lateral epitaxial overgrowth mode.
 48. The method ofclaim 47, wherein step (d) comprises the substeps of: a) starting growthof the layer of the third material at the surface regions covered by thecap layer; b) continuing the growth of the third material in a lateralplane, resulting in merging of neighboring domains of lateral epitaxialovergrowth; and c) forming the defect-free epitaxial layer from thethird material, wherein the defect-free epitaxial layer is suitable forfurther epitaxial growth.
 49. The method of claim 26, wherein at leastone void remains in the third material.
 50. The method of claim 26,wherein no voids remain in the third material.
 51. The method of claim26, further comprising the step of, after step (a) and prior to step(b), the deposition of a fourth material, lattice-matched or nearlylattice-matched to the first epitaxial layer, wherein the fourthmaterial provides a repulsion of the second material of the cap layerfrom defect-containing regions on the surface.
 52. The method of claim26, further comprising the step of, after step (a) and prior to step(b), the deposition of a fourth material, wherein the fourth material isin a no-strain state lattice-mismatched to the first solid statematerial, wherein the thickness of the fourth material is below acritical thickness required for a creation of new defects, such that thefourth material forms a strained defect-free thin pseudomorphic layer.53. The method of claim 52, wherein the pseudomorphic layer provides arepulsion of the second material of the cap layer from defect regions onthe surface.
 54. The method of claim 26, wherein: a) the substratecomprises Si; b) the first epitaxial layer comprises Si_(1-x)Ge_(x),wherein a thickness of the first epitaxial layer exceeds a criticalthickness for plastic strain relaxation; c) the cap layer comprises athin Si layer; and d) the third material comprises Si_(1-y)Ge_(y)wherein a composition “y” is preferably close to a composition “x” ofthe first epitaxial layer; wherein steps (a) through (d) result in aformation of a defect-free Si_(1-y)Ge_(y) layer on top of a plasticallyrelaxed Si_(1-x)Ge_(x) layer on top of a Si substrate.
 55. The method ofclaim 54, further comprising the step of depositing a thin Si layer onthe defect-free Si_(1-y)Ge_(y) layer, thus fanning a defect-freepseudomorphically strained Si layer.
 56. The method of claim 26,wherein: a) the substrate comprises Si; b) the first epitaxial layercomprises Ga_(1-x)In_(x)As, wherein a thickness of which exceeds acritical thickness for plastic strain relaxation; c) the cap layercomprises a thin AlAs layer; and d) the third material comprisesGa_(1-y)In_(y)As, wherein a composition “y” is preferably close to acomposition “x” of the first epitaxial layer; wherein steps (a) through(d) result in the formation of a defect-free Ga_(1-y)In_(x)As layer ontop of a plastically relaxed Ga_(1-x)In_(x)As layer on top of a Sisubstrate.
 57. The method of claim 26, wherein: a) the substratecomprises Si; b) the first epitaxial layer comprises Ga_(1-x)In_(y)As,wherein a thickness of which exceeds a critical thickness for plasticstrain relaxation; c) the cap layer comprises a thin AlAs layer; and d)the third material comprises Ga_(1-y-z)In_(y)Al_(z)As, wherein acomposition “y” preferably close to the composition “x” of the firstepitaxial layer; wherein steps (a) through (d) result in a formation ofa defect-free Ga_(1-y-z)In_(y)Al_(z)As layer on top of a plasticallyrelaxed Ga_(1-x)In_(x)As layer on top of a Si substrate.
 58. The methodof claim 53, wherein: a) the substrate comprises Si; b) the firstepitaxial layer comprises GaAs, wherein a thickness of the firstepitaxial layer exceeds a critical thickness for plastic strainrelaxation; c) the pseudomorphic layer comprises a thin Ga_(1-x)In_(x)Aspseudomorphic layer; d) the cap layer comprises a thin AlAs layer; ande) the third material comprises GaAs; wherein steps (a) through (d)result in a formation of a defect-free GaAs layer on top of aplastically relaxed GaAs layer on top of a Si substrate.
 59. The methodof claim 26, wherein: a) the substrate comprises GaAs; b) the firstepitaxial layer comprises Ga_(1-x)In_(x)As, wherein a thickness of thefirst epitaxial layer exceeds a critical thickness for plastic strainrelaxation; c) the cap layer comprises a thin AlAs layer; and d) thethird material comprises Ga_(1-y)In_(y)As, wherein a composition “y” ispreferably close to a composition “x” of the first epitaxial layer;wherein steps (a) through (d) result in a formation of a defect-freeGa_(1-y)In_(y)As layer on top of a plastically relaxed Ga_(1-x)In_(x)Aslayer on top of a GaAs substrate.
 60. The method of claim 26, wherein:a) the substrate comprises GaAs; b) the first epitaxial layer comprisesGa_(1-x)In_(x)As, wherein a thickness of the first epitaxial layerexceeds a critical thickness for plastic strain relaxation; c) the caplayer comprises a thin AlAs layer; and d) the third material comprisesGa_(1-y-z)In_(y)Al_(z)As, wherein a composition “y” is preferably closeto the composition “x” of the first epitaxial layer; wherein steps (a)through (d) result in a formation of a defect-freeGa_(1-y-z)In_(y)Al_(z)As layer on top of a plastically relaxedGa_(1-x)In_(x)As layer on top of a GaAs substrate.
 61. The method ofclaim 26, wherein: a) the substrate comprises Si with a (111) surfaceorientation; b) the first epitaxial layer comprises GaN, wherein athickness of the first epitaxial layer exceeds a critical thickness forplastic strain relaxation; c) the cap layer comprises a thin AlN layer;and d) the third material comprises GaN; wherein steps (a) through (d)result in a formation of a defect-free GaN layer on top of a plasticallyrelaxed GaN layer on top of a Si (111) substrate.
 62. The method ofclaim 26, wherein: a) the substrate comprises Si with a (111) surfaceorientation; b) the first epitaxial layer comprises Ga_(1-x)In_(x)N,wherein a thickness of the first epitaxial layer exceeds a criticalthickness for plastic strain relaxation; c) the cap layer comprises athin AlN layer; and d) the third material comprises Ga_(1-y)In_(y)N,wherein a composition “y” is preferably close to a composition “x” ofthe first epitaxial layer; wherein steps (a) through (d) result in aformation of a defect-free Ga_(1-y)In_(y)N layer on top of a plasticallyrelaxed Ga^(1-y)In_(y)N layer on top of a Si (111) substrate.
 63. Themethod of claim 26, wherein: a) the substrate comprises Si with a (111)surface orientation; b) the first epitaxial layer comprisesGa_(1-x-y)In_(x)Al_(y)N, wherein a thickness of the first epitaxiallayer exceeds a critical thickness for plastic strain relaxation; c) thecap layer comprises a thin AlN layer; and d) the third materialcomprises Ga_(1-z-t)In_(z)Al_(t)As, wherein a composition “z” ispreferably close to a composition “x” and a composition “t” ispreferably close to a composition “y” of the first epitaxial layer;wherein steps (a) through (d) result in a formation of a defect-freeGa_(1-z-t)In_(z)Al_(t)N layer on top of a plastically relaxedGa_(1-x-y)In_(x)Al_(y)N layer on top of a Si (111) substrate.
 64. Themethod of claim 26, wherein: a) the substrate comprises SiC; b) thefirst epitaxial layer comprises GaN, wherein a thickness of the firstepitaxial layer exceeds a critical thickness for plastic strainrelaxation; c) the cap layer comprises a thin AlN layer; and d) thethird material comprises GaN; wherein steps (a) through (d) result in aformation of a defect-free GaN layer on top of a plastically relaxed GaNlayer on top of a SiC substrate.
 65. The method of claim 26, wherein: a)the substrate comprises SiC; b) the first epitaxial layer comprisesGa_(1-x)In_(x)N, wherein a thickness of the first epitaxial layerexceeds a critical thickness for plastic strain relaxation; c) the caplayer comprises a thin AlN layer; and d) the third material comprisesGa_(1-y)In_(y)N, wherein a composition “y” is preferably close to acomposition “x” of the first epitaxial layer; wherein steps (a) through(d) result in a formation of a defect-free Ga_(1-y)In_(y)N layer on topof a plastically relaxed Ga_(1-x)In_(x)N layer on top of a SiCsubstrate.
 66. The method of claim 26, wherein: a) the substratecomprises SiC; b) the first epitaxial layer comprisesGa_(1-x-y)In_(x)Al_(y)N, wherein a thickness of the first epitaxiallayer exceeds the critical thickness for plastic strain relaxation; c)the cap layer comprises a thin AlN layer; and d) the third materialcomprises Ga_(1-z-t)In_(z)Al_(y)N, wherein a composition “z” ispreferably close to a composition “x” and a composition “t” ispreferably close to a composition “y” of the first epitaxial layer;wherein steps (a) through (d) result in a formation of a defect-freeGa_(1-z-t)In_(z)Al_(t)N layer on top of a plastically relaxedGa_(1-x-y)In_(x)Al_(y)As layer on top of a SiC substrate.
 67. The methodof claim 26, wherein: a) the substrate comprises sapphire; b) the firstepitaxial layer comprises GaN, wherein a thickness of the firstepitaxial layer exceeds a critical thickness for plastic strainrelaxation; c) the cap layer comprises a thin AlN layer; and d) thethird material comprises GaN; wherein steps (a) through (d) result in aformation of a defect-free GaN layer on top of a plastically relaxed GaNlayer on top of a sapphire substrate.
 68. The method of claim 26,wherein: a) the substrate comprises SiC; b) the first epitaxial layercomprises Ga_(1-x)In_(x)N, wherein a thickness of the first epitaxiallayer exceeds a critical thickness for plastic strain relaxation; c) thecap layer comprises a thin AlN layer; and d) the third materialcomprises Ga_(1-y)In_(y)N, wherein a composition “y” is preferably closeto a composition “x” of the first epitaxial layer; wherein steps (a)through (d) result in a formation of a defect-free Ga_(1-y)In_(y)N layeron top of a plastically relaxed Ga_(1-x)In_(x)N layer on top of asapphire substrate.
 69. The method of claim 26, wherein: a) thesubstrate comprises SiC; b) the first epitaxial layer comprisesGa_(1-x-y)In_(x)Al_(y)N, wherein a thickness of the first epitaxiallayer exceeds a critical thickness for plastic strain relaxation; c) thecap layer comprises a thin AlN layer; and d) the third materialcomprises Ga_(1-z-t)In_(z)Al_(t)As, wherein a composition “z” ispreferably close to a composition “x” of the first epitaxial layer and acomposition “t” is preferably close to a composition “y” of the firstepitaxial layer; wherein steps (a) through (d) result in a formation ofa defect-free Ga_(1-z-t)In_(z)Al_(t)N layer on top of a plasticallyrelaxed Ga_(1-x-y)In_(x)Al_(y)As layer on top of a SiC substrate. 70.The method of claim 26, wherein the defect-free template comprises ann-doped defect-free Ga_(1-x)In_(x)As layer and is incorporated into aGaAs-based vertical cavity surface emitting laser, wherein the verticalcavity surface emitting laser comprises: a) an n-doped GaAs-substrate;b) an n-doped bottom mirror formed by a Bragg reflector region locatedabove the substrate; c) a cavity comprising: i) an n-doped regioncomprising an n-doped Ga_(1-x)In_(x)As layer grown epitaxially on then-doped defect-free Ga_(1-x)In_(x)As layer; ii) an active region whichgenerates light when subject to an injection current; and iii) a p-dopedregion comprising a p-doped Ga_(1-x)In_(x)As layer lattice-matched tothe n-doped Ga_(1-x)In_(x)As layer; and d) a p-doped top mirror locatedabove the cavity and formed by a Bragg reflector.
 71. The method ofclaim the vertical cavity surface emitting laser further comprises: e)an n-contact located directly below the substrate; and f) a p-contactlocated directly above the top mirror.
 72. The method of claim 71,wherein the active region of the vertical cavity surface emitting lasercomprises an active layer selected from the group consisting of: a) adouble heterostructure; b) a quantum well; c) an array of quantum wires;and d) array of quantum dots.
 73. The method of claim 71, wherein theactive region of the vertical cavity surface emitting laser comprises amultilayered structure of a plurality of active layers each separated bya spacer layer, wherein the active layers are selected from the groupconsisting of: a) a double heterostructure; b) a quantum well; c) anarray of quantum wires; and d) an array of quantum dots.
 74. The methodof claim 73, wherein the active layers of the vertical cavity surfaceemitting laser comprise a Ga_(1-x)In_(x)As semiconductor alloy having anindium composition higher than that of the n-doped defect-freeGa_(1-x)In_(x)As layer, and the spacer layers comprise aGa_(1-x)In_(x)As semiconductor alloy having an indium composition lowerthan that of the n-doped defect-free Ga_(1-x)In_(x)As layer, such thatthe active region is strain-compensated on average.
 75. The method ofclaim 71, the vertical cavity surface emitting laser generates laserlight in the wavelength region of 1.4 through 1.8 micrometers.
 76. Themethod of claim 70, wherein at least one contact of the vertical cavitysurface emitting laser comprises an intracavity contact.
 77. The methodof claim 26, wherein the defect-free template comprises an n-dopeddefect-free Ga_(1-x)In_(x)As layer and is incorporated into a GaAs-basededge-emitting laser, wherein the edge-emitting laser comprises: a) ann-doped GaAs-substrate; b) an n-doped cladding layer; c) a waveguidecomprising: i) an n-doped region comprising an n-doped Ga_(1-x)In_(x)Aslayer grown epitaxially on the n-doped defect-free Ga_(1-x)In_(x)Aslayer; ii) an active region which generates light when subject to aninjection current; and iii) a p-doped region comprising a p-dopedGa_(1-x)In_(x)As layer lattice-matched to the n-doped Ga_(1-x)In_(x)Aslayer; and d) a p-doped cladding layer.
 78. The method of claim 77,wherein the edge-emitting laser further comprises: e) an n-contactlocated directly below the substrate; and f) a p-contact locateddirectly above the p-cladding layer.
 79. The method of claim 78, whereinthe active region of the edge-emitting laser comprises an active layerselected from the group consisting of: a) a double heterostructure; b) aquantum well; c) an array of quantum wires; and d) an array of quantumdots.
 80. The method of claim 78, wherein the active region of theedge-emitting laser comprises a multilayered structure of a plurality ofactive layers each separated by a spacer layer, wherein the activelayers are selected from the group consisting of: a) a doubleheterostructure; b) a quantum well; c) an array of quantum wires; and d)an array of quantum dots.
 81. The method of claim 80, wherein the activelayers of the edge-emitting laser comprise a Ga_(1-x)In_(x)Assemiconductor alloy having an indium composition higher than that of then-doped defect-free Ga_(1-x)In_(x)As layer, and the spacer layerscomprise a Ga_(1−x)In_(x)As semiconductor alloy having an indiumcomposition lower than that of the n-doped defect-free Ga_(1-x)In_(x)Aslayer, such that the active region is strain-compensated on average. 82.The method of claim 78, wherein the edge-emitting laser generates laserlight in a wavelength region of 1.4 through 1.8 micrometers.